中世纪世界生活手册（六）
社会和经济的发展
封建制度、公司、大学和城市是在基督教欧洲发展起来的四个主要机制。二元性和等级制度是这个世界的特点，城镇和乡村的世俗世界与教堂和修道院的神圣世界并列，这两个世界经常交织在一起。然而，基督教的艺术、文学和哲学将神圣世界提升到世俗世界之上。上帝之城，也就是教会的精神生活，比卑微的世俗追求更具有至高无上的地位。世俗和神圣的世界都是有等级的，每个人都坚定地站在社会阶梯的某一阶层。每个等级都有其权力、权益、责任和要求，并与上层等级和下层等级相互关联。正如被创造的宇宙被描述为一个巨大的存在链一样，人们也把世俗领域理解为一个巨大的政治存在链，顶端是国王（或皇帝），由总封臣、附庸（封臣或陪臣）、一般封臣、骑士、乡绅、仆人和其他多个角色组成的下层封建秩序，最后到达耕种土地的农奴。教会的大教团和小教团有等级上的相互依存关系，工匠行会也是如此。
Feudalism, the corporation, the university, and the city were four major institutions that evolved in Christian Europe. Duality and hierarchy were characteristics of this world. The secular world of town and country was juxtaposed against the sacred world of church and monastery. The two worlds often intersected. Yet Christian art, literature, and philosophy elevated the sacred world above the secular. The City of God, the church’s spiritual life, had supremacy over paltry earthly strivings. Both the secular and sacred worlds were hierarchical. Every individual stood firmly on a rung of a social ladder. Each hieratic rank had its powers, rights, responsibilities, and requirements interrelated with the level above and the one below. Just as the created universe was described as a great chain of being, so the secular realm was construed as a great political chain of being with the king or the emperor at the top and then descending feudal orders of chief tenants, vassals, vavasours, knights, squires, servants, and multiple other links before reaching down to serfs who worked the land. Major orders and minor orders of the church had hierarchic interdependencies. So did craftsmen’s guilds.
封建制度
封建制度是在没有强大的中央政府的情况下产生的一种权力分散的形式。中世纪封建制度起源于西罗马帝国灭亡之前的几个世纪。人们会记得，富有的罗马贵族为了逃离城市的不安全和高税收，在庄园中享受生活。他们在那里与农民签订契约，让他们耕种土地，以换取罗马军队的保护（对抗野蛮人的侵扰）。这种贡献制度与日耳曼部落的社会经济组织相融合，后者将其土地划分为封地。(fief这个词来源于德语vieh，意思是“牛”。)封建制度的兴起与教会在中世纪社会的兴起相类似。就像帝国崩溃后主教承担了民事权力一样，地方绅豪也出现了，以填补军事和行政权力的真空。
Feudalism is a form of decentralized power that arises in the absence of a strong central government. The origins of medieval feudalism lie in the centuries prior to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It will be recalled that wealthy Roman aristocrats fled the insecurity and high taxes of the cities and established themselves in villas. There they contracted farmers to work the land in exchange for protection from the barbarians and the Roman armies. This patronage system blended with the socioeconomic organization of Germanic tribes, who divided their lands into fiefdoms. (The word fief derives from the German vieh, meaning “cow.”) The rise of feudalism parallels the rise of the church in medieval society. Just as the bishops assumed civil authority after the collapse of the empire, so, too, local strongmen emerged to fill the vacuum of military and administrative power.
随着10世纪末加洛林帝国的瓦解，封建制度变得根深蒂固。许多上台的伯爵曾是帝国的官员，他们对政府的忠诚是通过授予土地财产和财政特权维持的。还有一些是军事强人，他们只是夺取了属于皇家领地的土地，甚至是教会土地。无论哪种情况，封建领主都通过对其土地上的经济活动行使专属权利来维持其权力。例如，封建领主从居住在其领土上的所有农奴那里获得实物和货币的付款。他们还拥有重要的资源，如作为垄断的面包店烤炉和谷物磨坊，乡民们被迫光顾这些地方。
Feudalism became entrenched with the collapse of the Carolingian empire in the late 10th century. Many of the counts who rose to power had been Imperial officials whose loyalty to the government had been purchased through the granting of landed estates and fiscal privileges. Others were military strongmen who simply seized lands that had belonged to the royal demesne or even church lands. In either case the feudal lord maintained his power by exercising exclusive rights over the economic activities of his land. For instance, feudal lords received payment in kind and in currency from all the serfs who resided in their territories. They also owned vital resources such as bakery ovens and grain mills as monopolies, which the villeins were forced to patronize.
这种权力是不容易放弃的。中世纪持久的冲突之一是地方封建领主与伯爵之间的冲突，他们努力保持尽可能多的经济、民事和军事权力，与神圣罗马帝国皇帝和新出现的君主之间的冲突，他们则试图将权力集中在自己手中。
Such power was not easily relinquished. One of the enduring conflicts of the Middle Ages would be between local feudal lords and counts who strived to maintain as much of their economic, civil, and military power as possible visà-vis the Holy Roman Emperors and new emerging monarchs who attempted to centralize power in their own hands.
商业革命
始于11世纪的商业革命在13世纪的国际市场上达到顶峰。这场革命是经济力量的平衡从农村的封建庄园向城镇的自由商人和工匠等新阶层的转移，以及经济的货币化。有几个因素促成了这场革命。大约在1000年，斯堪的纳维亚人和匈牙利人皈依了基督教，从而消除了对基督教世界的一个主要政治威胁。大约在同一时期，由于科尔多瓦哈里发国（后倭马亚王朝）陷入内战，意大利商人重新获得了对西地中海航线的控制。这些事件促使了连接巴尔干半岛、地中海和拜占庭的重要贸易路线的恢复，刺激了西欧的经济。
A commercial revolution that began in the 11th century culminated in international markets in the 13th century. The revolution was the shift in the balance of economic power from the feudal estates of the countryside to the new classes of free merchants and artisans of the towns and cities and in the monetization of the economy. Several factors contributed to the revolution. Circa the year 1000, the Scandinavians and Hungarians converted to Christianity, thus removing a major political threat to Christendom. About the same time, Italian merchants regained control of the western Mediterranean Sea routes as the Córdoban caliphate descended into civil war. These and other events resulted in the recovery of important trade routes joining the Balkans, the Mediterranean, and Byzantium, which stimulated the economies of western Europe.
农业技术的改进和随之而来的人口增长创造了农业生产不再需要的剩余人口。因此，居住在庄园村落、只能在冬季淡季从事其行业的工匠们开始向城镇倾斜，在那里他们可以全身心地投入到自己的职业中。这些城市中心位于主要的朝圣路线上，或靠近大教堂，非常方便。工匠们集中在一个特定的地点，吸引了其他工匠，如补鞋匠、制衣匠、裁缝、医生、药剂师、屠夫和面包师。曾经仅限于流动的商人也在城市和城镇建立了他们的基地。便利的地理位置和更安全的道路保证了稳定的客户流量。许多行业需要比家庭成员更多的工人，因此为工匠和普通劳动者提供了工作，进一步刺激了经济增长。
Improvements in agricultural techniques and attendant demographic increase created a surplus population no longer needed for agricultural production. As a result, artisans who lived in estate villages and could only exercise their trade in the winter off-season began gravitating toward the towns and cities, where they could devote themselves full time to their profession. These urban centers were conveniently located along major pilgrimage routes or near cathedrals. The concentration of artisans in a given location attracted other specialists, such as cobblers, clothmakers, tailors, physicians, apothecaries, butchers, and bakers. Merchants, once limited to itineracy, also established their base in the cities and towns. The convenient location and greater safety on the roads guaranteed the steady flow of customers. Many trades required more workers than the members of a family and thus generated work for specialists and common laborers, further stimulating economic growth.
制造商品的工厂需要原材料和食品，这就激励了农村农民增加生产，并将剩余的产品卖到城市中心。利用这些销售所得的利润，乡村农民可以用他们传统上必须花费的时间来耕种封建领主的土地，以支付年金税。获得的时间使他们能够将资源用于提高自己土地的生产力，以进一步提高利润。
Factories where goods were manufactured required raw materials and food, providing an incentive to rural farmers to increase their production and sell the surplus in the urban centers. With the profits earned from such sales, village farmers could substitute the time that they traditionally had to spend farming the lands of their feudal lords for the payment of an annuity tax. The time gained enabled them to put their resources into increasing the productivity of their own lands to further their profits.
商业化和城市生活使货币经济的发展成为必然。在传统的封建庄园里，商品和服务的支付可以通过实物或以物易物的方式实现。但对于城市商业交易来说，货币显然要方便得多，而且对于国际贸易来说货币也是不可或缺的。对硬通货的需求也增加了人们对放债人的需求。由于基督教禁止放高利贷，放债是一项传统上由犹太银行家主导的服务。教会某些部门态度的变化和其他务实的考虑使意大利银行家和放债人的地位上升。
Commercialization and urban living made the development of a money-based economy a necessity. On a traditional feudal estate payment for goods and services could be rendered in kind or realized through a system of barter. But money is obviously much more convenient for urban commercial transactions and indispensable for international trade. The need for hard cash also increased the need for moneylenders. Moneylending was a service that had traditionally been dominated by Jewish bankers because of the Christian prohibition of usury. Changes in attitude within certain sectors of the church and other pragmatic considerations allowed Italian bankers and moneylenders to rise in prominence.
在大多数情况下，教会不赞成商业革命和经济的货币化。在11世纪货币经济兴起之前，关于七宗罪的神学论文总是将骄傲列为最严重的罪行，这反映了当时权力的社会现实。有一个典型表现傲慢的图标，描绘了一个国王、封建领主或主教被谦卑的化身从马背上扔下来的情景。随着向货币经济的过渡，贪婪取代了傲慢，成为致命的罪孽中最严重的一种。贪婪的肖像画往往是丑化的，显示出排泄的硬币或将金钱和放债人与魔鬼联系起来。放债人经常被描绘成具有怪诞夸张的“犹太人”特征，以煽动民众对犹太人的敌意。传统的基督教传教士用《圣经》中的名言来威胁有权势的商人，如著名的“因为爱钱是万恶之源”（提摩太前书6：10）。具有讽刺意味的是，13世纪宣扬并生活在使徒式贫穷中的修行会在处理城市富商和工匠的问题上更为成功。他们没有让富人为获得财富而感到内疚，而是将这些人的热诚引导到慈善事业上，并形成了照顾穷人的宗教团体。
For the most part, however, the church disapproved of the commercial revolution and the monetization of the economy. Before the rise of the money economy in the 11th century, theological treatises on the seven deadly sins always listed pride as the worst sin, a reflection of the social realities of power at the time. A typical iconographic representation of the humbling of pride depicted a king, feudal lord, or bishop being thrown from his horse by the personification of humility. With the transition to the money economy, avarice replaced pride as the worst of the deadly sins. Iconographic renderings of avarice were often scatological, showing defecated coins or associated money and moneylenders with the devil. Moneylenders were often depicted with grotesquely exaggerated “Jewish” features to incite hostility toward the Jews. Traditional Christian preachers threatened the powerful burghers with biblical quotations such as the well-known “For the love of money is the root of all evil” (1 Tim. 6:10). Ironically, the 13th-century mendicant orders who preached and lived apostolic poverty were more successful in dealing with wealthy urban merchants and artisans. Rather than make the rich feel guilty for acquiring wealth, they channeled the fervent piety of these people toward works of charity and the forming of religious confraternities that tended to the poor.
促进商业革命的另一因素是城镇从君主那里得到的政治支持。城市居民和商人作为国王的盟友获得了特权，以对抗更不可靠的伯爵和男爵。
Another factor contributing to the commercial revolution was the political support that towns and cities received from the monarch. Urban burghers and merchants received privileges as allies of the king against the more unreliable counts and barons.
城镇和城市的发展
罗马帝国灭亡后，欧洲大陆的城镇有君主或封建霸主授予的自由宪章。生产与交换货物和服务，需要人和货物的安全以及水路与陆路等基础设施的稳定。防御、土地与河流的改善、贸易安全、国内秩序和临近市场，使城市对居住在其中的人和从其财富中获得经济利益的人具有价值。最早的中世纪城市是由城镇商人组成的团体，通过誓言和个人纽带结合在一起的。
After the fall of the Roman Empire, towns in continental Europe had charters of liberties granted by the sovereign or the feudal overlord. Producing and exchanging goods and services required physical safety for people and goods and stability of essential services such as water and roads. Defense, land and river improvements, safety of trade, domestic order, and proximity to markets made cities valuable to those who lived in them and those who gained financially from their wealth. The earliest medieval cities were groupings of town business folk united by oath and personal bond.
到12世纪末，选择居住在城市的人都要宣誓承认城市的权威。作为非宗教或教会宗主、国王或皇帝的领地的一部分，城市要向其领主进贡并效忠。在战时，城镇由其骑士和武装战士提供服务，并提供物质和金钱。统治者将城市作为财富和繁荣的来源，并在自由宪章中确认其权利。然而，城市和它们的统治者之间经常出现争端。在国王和贵族之间的斗争中，国王通常试图与城市建立联盟。大多数城市由选举产生的议会领导，行政长官和法官被称为执政官，在意大利则被称为首席法官，在法国南部被称为市政长官。在法国北部，领导人被称为市议员和陪审员，而在低地国家则被称为参议员。在德国，城市领导人被称为地方议会议员。除了议会之外，行会和公司在城市政府中也很重要。而城市民兵则负责城市防御。
By the late 12th century people who chose to live in cities took an oath acknowledging the authority of the city. As part of the demesne of a lay or ecclesiastical suzerain, a king, or an emperor, the town paid tribute and owed allegiance to its lord. In wartime the town provided service by its knights and armed warriors as well as material and money. Rulers favored cities as sources of wealth and prosperity and confirmed their rights in liberal charters. Disputes, however, often arose between cities and their overlords. In struggles between kings and noblemen, kings usually attempted to create alliances with cities. Elected councils led most cities. Magistrates and judges were called consuls, podestas in Italy, and capitouls in the south of France. In the north of France the leaders were called echevins and jures, and in the Low Countries senators. In Germany city leaders were called Ratsherren. In addition to the councils, guilds and corporations were prominent in city government. The city militia ensured defense.
为了互利而聚集在城镇的商人和工匠们，在1100年前后创造了或大或小的商业中心，像蘑菇一样在欧洲的田野上发芽。这些商业中心的人口增长是以牺牲农村为代价实现的。从加洛林帝国的遗迹中产生的封建制度是残酷且压迫的，封建领主禁止他们的农奴离开土地，并在经济上虐待他们。为了抓捕逃亡的农奴，领主会发布逮捕令，这些农奴一旦被发现就会遭受酷刑。城市和城镇提供了从封建义务中解放出来的承诺，而这种承诺通过王室法律的规定成为现实。12世纪授予法国北部洛里斯镇的皇家宪章是一个典型的例子，说明城镇在整个西欧大部分地区提供并享有的特权与自由。1155年，卡佩王朝的路易七世（1137-80年）下令：“任何在洛里斯教区居住一年零一天的人，如果没有人追捕他，也没有拒绝将他的情况提交给我们或我们的教区长，就可以在那里自由居住，不受干扰”（Ogg，330）。许多足智多谋的逃亡农奴设法在城市的隐蔽性中获得自由。《洛里斯皇家宪章》还保证了伯格人（近代早期欧洲中世纪城镇中特权公民的等级或头衔）的其他特权，如免除关税、过路费、道路与补贴税，并保护他们的财产不被非法没收。
Merchants and craftsmen who gathered for mutual benefit in towns created larger or smaller commercial centers that sprouted like mushrooms over European fields in and around the year 1100. The population growth of these commercial centers was achieved at the expense of the countryside. The feudal system that emerged out of the remains of the Carolingian empire was brutal and oppressive. Feudal lords forbade their serfs to leave the land and abused them economically. Orders of arrest were issued to capture fugitive serfs, who when found were subjected to torture. Cities and towns offered the promise of liberation from feudal obligations, and this promise was made reality by the provisions of royal law. A 12th-century royal charter granted to the town of Lorris in northern France will serve as an example of the privileges and freedoms towns and cities offered and enjoyed throughout most of western Europe. In 1155 the Capetian king Louis VII (r. 1137–80) decreed, “Any one who shall dwell a year and a day in the parish of Lorris, without any claim having pursued him there, and without having refused to lay his case before us or our provost, shall abide there freely and without molestation” (Ogg, 330). Many a resourceful fugitive serf managed to gain his or her freedom in the anonymity of the city. The Charter of Lorris also guaranteed burghers other privileges such as exemption from tallage, toll, road, and subsidy taxes and protection from the unlawful seizure of their property.
在地中海、北意大利、多瑙河和莱茵河上游、佛兰德斯和波罗的海沿岸的贸易路线上，许多城镇成为城邦。米兰、威尼斯、热那亚、比萨和佛罗伦萨管理着他们的带围墙城市和周围的乡村地区。弗兰德斯（法兰德斯）的布鲁日和根特迅速发展成为重要的城市。
Towns became city-states along trade routes in the Mediterranean, North Italy, the Upper Danube and Rhine Rivers, in Flanders, and on the Baltic coast. Milan, Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Florence governed their walled cities and the surrounding countryside. Bruges and Ghent in Flanders developed quickly into significant cities.
在莱茵河、波罗的海和北海，城镇成为帝国自由城市，它们只效忠于皇帝。在神圣罗马帝国境内，帝国自由城市包括纽伦堡、法兰克福、奥格斯堡、斯特拉斯堡、汉堡和吕贝克，这是汉萨同盟的主要国际港口。法国和英国的城镇与他们的国王签订了宪章，巴黎和伦敦是重要的商业城市。伦巴第联盟和汉萨联盟等城市联盟打着自己的旗号进行战争，有自己的商法，并从事自己的外交活动。
On the Rhine River and on the Baltic and North Seas, towns became Imperial free cities owing allegiance only to the emperor. Within the Holy Roman Empire Imperial free cities included Nuremberg, Frankfurt, Augsburg, Strasbourg, Hamburg, and Lübeck, the major international port of the Hanseatic League. French and English towns signed charters with their kings, and Paris and London were important commercial cities. Urban federations such as the Lombard League and the Hanseatic League fought wars under their own flags, had their own merchant law, and engaged in their own diplomacy.
富裕的城市争夺哪个城市拥有最丰富的商品、国际交流、强大的商人以及高雅的公民文化等荣誉。每个城镇居民都获得了与城镇企业自由相关的自由。城镇和大学一样，通常是公司，就像现代公司的定义一样，具有永久的生命力，尽管组成公司的个人是普通的短命凡人。
Wealthy cities vied for the honors of which had most variety in merchandise, international exchanges, powerful merchants, and refined and civic culture. Each individual townsman achieved a liberty associated with a town’s corporate liberty. Towns, like universities, usually were corporations, as in the modern definition of corporation, having a perpetual life even though individuals composing the corporation were ordinary short-lived mortals.
行 会
11世纪的西欧出现了专业行会，它们在商业革命和国际贸易中发挥了突出作用。商人行会和手工业行会之间有一个基本划分。商人行会从事远距离和本地商业。来自威尼斯、热那亚、伦敦、根特和其他地方的强大的商人公会在外国城市建立了殖民地。手工业行会是根据贸易组织的，成员通常拥有自己的企业。这两种类型的职业行会都以同样的方式运作。一个行会的成功取决于其个别成员的合作，行会成员同意贡献某些资源，并合作采取有利于组织的经济和精神努力的联合行动。他们对每个行业和工艺的从业人员进行培训，准备发证，并对其进行监管，范围包括酿酒、烘焙、编织、银器制造、制刀和制鞋，以及造船、采矿、泥瓦匠、医药和外科等。工匠大师教导学徒，并雇用工匠，他们按日或短期合同工作以获取工资。城市执行行会条例，制定卓越的标准，并起诉不当行为，市政府还确保行会大师履行其培训学徒的义务。
Professional guilds that emerged in 11th-century western Europe played a prominent role in the commercial revolution and international trade. A basic division was made between merchant guilds and craft guilds. Merchant guilds engaged in long-distance and local commerce. Powerful merchant guilds from Venice, Genoa, London, Ghent, and elsewhere established colonies in foreign cities. Craft guilds were organized according to trade, and members usually owned their own businesses. Both types of occupational guilds operated the same way. A guild’s success depended upon the cooperation of its individual members. Guild members agreed to contribute certain resources and to cooperate in taking joint actions that would benefit the organization’s economic and spiritual endeavors. They trained, prepared for licensing, and regulated practitioners of each industry and craft ranging from brewing, baking, weaving, silversmithing, knife making, and shoemaking to shipbuilding, mining, masonry, medicine, and surgery. Master craftsmen taught apprentices and employed journeymen, who worked for wages on a daily or short-term contract. Cities enforced guild regulations that set standards of excellence and prosecuted malpractice. Municipal governments also ensured that guild masters fulfilled their obligations to train apprentices.
商人和手工业行会的经济重要性转化为真正的政治权力。行会官员有权对不正当的成员进行罚款、惩罚或驱逐。供给品行会可以操纵食品的供应，使其具有经济优势。商人公会保护自己不受掠夺性统治者的诱惑，例如在战争期间，他们威胁要抵制冒犯性统治者的王国，从而扣押外国商人的资产。这种威胁是有效的，因为抵制会使依赖商业税收的王国和政府陷入贫困。行会还通过向贵族支付一笔钱，威胁他们，甚至领导民众反抗他们来遏制贵族的干涉。行会成员的财富和政治影响力使他们能够在地方政府中占据重要位置，甚至控制地方政府。
The economic importance of merchant and craft guilds translated into real political power. Guild officials were empowered to fine, punish, or expel malfeasant members. Victualing guilds could manipulate the availability of foodstuffs to their economic advantage. Merchant guilds protected themselves from predatory rulers who might be tempted, such as during wartime, to seize the assets of foreign merchants by threatening to boycott the kingdom of the offending ruler. Such threats worked because a boycott could impoverish kingdoms and governments dependent upon tax revenues from commerce. Guilds also held the interference of aristocrats in check by paying a sum of money to them, threatening them, or even leading popular revolts against them. The wealth and political influence of guild members enabled them to occupy prominent positions in or even control local governments.
富裕的行会建造了豪华的哥特式行宫、图书馆和大教堂，并促进了当地戏剧和艺术的发展。12世纪之前制定的度量衡、硬币汇率、簿记和商业合同等标准在13世纪的经济发展中变得越来越复杂。勇敢的企业家精神刺激了文化和艺术，商业垄断影响了战争与和平。
Wealthy guilds built proud Gothic guildhalls, libraries, and cathedrals and promoted local theater and art. Standards set before the 12th century for weights and measures, coinage exchange rates, bookkeeping, and commercial contracts became increasingly sophisticated in the economic progress of the 13th century. Bravura entrepreneurship stimulated culture and art, and mercantile monopolies affected war and peace.
还必须提到，在11世纪和12世纪出现的非职业性行会，以实现各种社会和宗教功能。社会或教区行会为成员提供经济上的互助，为嫁妆筹集资金，为学徒提供资金，以及偿还贷款或法律费用。宗教行会，又称兄弟会，从事帮助灵魂逃离炼狱的工作，他们聚集在一起祈祷，赞助弥撒，并代表死者进行慈善。
Mention must also be made of the nonoccupational guilds that also emerged in the 11th and 12th centuries to fulfill a variety of social and religious functions. Social or parish guilds provided members with mutual economic aid, raising money for dowries, to fund apprenticeships, and to pay off loans or legal fees. Religious guilds, otherwise known as confraternities, engaged in the work of helping souls to escape from purgatory by gathering together to pray, sponsoring masses, and giving charity on behalf of the dead.
大 学
1200年，巴黎拉丁区爆发了一场激烈的巷战，一方是心怀不满的学生和老师，另一方是皇家教务长和他的手下。学生和教师决心组成一种新的行会，称为 "大学"（universitas），并获得法国国王的批准，成立了巴黎师生大学。当然，学生和大师们愿意为他们的权利而战，这一事实本身就表明，在1200年之前就存在着正式的大学。君士坦丁堡大学成立于849年，是第五世纪狄奥多西二世（408-450）创立的法律、哲学、医学、算术、几何学、音乐和修辞学学校的直接继承者。西欧第一所授予学位的大学是博洛尼亚大学，它成立于1088年，是一所研究语法、修辞、逻辑和法学的文科学校。君士坦丁堡大学和博洛尼亚大学也是世俗机构。
In 1200 a pitched street battle erupted in the Latin Quarter of Paris between disgruntled students and master teachers on the one side and the royal provost and his men on the other. The students and masters resolved to form a new kind of guild called a “union” (universitas) and obtained approval from the king of France to found the University of the Masters and Students of Paris. Of course, the mere fact that students and masters were willing to fight for their rights indicates that formal learning existed prior to the year 1200. The University of Constantinople was founded in 849 as a direct heir of the fifth-century School of Law, Philosophy, Medicine, Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Rhetoric founded by Theodosius II (r. 408–450). The first degree-granting university in western Europe was the University of Bologna, which was established in 1088 as a school of liberal arts for the study of grammar, rhetoric, logic, and jurisprudence. The University of Constantinople and the University of Bologna were also secular institutions.
西欧的教育在很大程度上遵循了一条由教会设计并来自教会的不同道路。为了确保教会的延续和帝国的正常管理查理曼大帝在814年颁布了一项帝国法令，命令大教堂和修道院为所有符合条件的男孩提供适当的教育。这些大教堂学校的课程是为了培养受过教育的神职人员。课程包括语法、修辞和逻辑的三要素，其次是算术、天文、几何和音乐的四要素。教皇格里高利七世在11世纪的格里高利改革中规定，所有大教堂和修道院都要建立培训神职人员的学校。巴黎成为最大的学习中心，因为富裕的圣母院大教堂里的教师非常优秀，而且在城市中心有许多修道院学校。巴黎修道院学校的学生和非住校教授从欧洲各地来到位于市中心的拉丁区定居，之所以被称为拉丁区是因为这里的通用语言和教学语言是拉丁语。
Education in western Europe largely followed a different path engineered by and from the church. In order to ensure the perpetuation of the church and the proper administration of his empire, in 814 Charlemagne issued an imperial decree ordering cathedrals and monasteries to provide a suitable education to all eligible boys. The curriculum of these cathedral schools was designed to produce an educated clergy: Subjects included the trivium of grammar, rhetoric, and logic, followed by the quadrivium of arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music. Pope Gregory VII’s 11th-century Gregorian Reforms included the mandate that all cathedrals and monasteries establish schools for the training of the clergy. Paris emerged as the greatest center of learning because of the excellence of its teachers in the wealthy Cathedral of Notre Dame and the location of numerous monastery schools in the heart of the city. Students and nonresident professors of Parisian monastic schools traveled from all over Europe to settle in the centrally located Latin Quarter, so called because the lingua franca and language of instruction was Latin.
12世纪，随着希腊逻辑学和哲学作品的拉丁文译本开始从西班牙和西西里的翻译学校抵达巴黎，学校课程发生了巨大的转变。课程的创新产生了学术主义，这是一种强调使用辩证推理来解决文本中明显矛盾的学习方法，并采用辩论（disputatio）作为工具来论证问题的双方。
School curricula took a dramatic turn in the 12th century as Latin translations of Greek logic and philosophical works began to arrive in Paris from the translation schools of Spain and Sicily. Innovations in the curricula gave rise to Scholasticism, a method of learning that emphasized the use of dialectical reasoning to resolve apparent contradictions in a text and employed debate (disputatio) as a tool to argue both sides of a question.
12世纪和13世纪，西欧的大学正蓬勃发展。有些大学，如博洛尼亚大学，是由学生创办和资助的，他们雇用教授并支付他们的工资。更常见的是，教会或王室支付教师的工资，巴黎大学和剑桥大学的情况就是如此。大学在政治和教育方面都发挥了重要作用，大公会议在公布其教义法令之前，都会征求大学的意见。巴黎大学的神学家们介入了教皇的分裂事件。受过大学培训的著名多米尼加人和方济各会在试图改变穆斯林和犹太人的信仰时，使用了学术性的辩论方法。在教皇格里高利九世和皇帝腓特烈二世之间关于意大利控制权的争端中，教皇利用了博洛尼亚法学院的著名教规律师。腓特烈为了报复，于1224年建立了那不勒斯大学，这是一所多部门的大学，其犹太教、基督教和穆斯林教师教授哲学、法律、医学和其他科学。
The 12th and 13th centuries saw the flourishing of universities throughout western Europe. Some, such as the University of Bologna, were founded and funded by students who hired professors and paid their wages. More commonly, the church or the Crown paid teachers’ salaries, as was the case of the University of Paris and the University of Cambridge, respectively. Universities played a vital role in politics as well as education. Ecumenical councils consulted universities before publishing their doctrinal decrees. University of Paris theologians intervened in the papal schism. Prominent university-trained Dominicans and Franciscans used the Scholastic method of disputation in their attempts to convert Muslims and Jews. In the dispute over the control of Italy between Pope Gregory IX and Emperor Frederick II, the pope had made use of the renowned canon lawyers of Bologna’s Faculty of Law. Frederick retaliated by founding in 1224 the University of Naples, the multisectarian university whose Jewish, Christian, and Muslim faculty taught philosophy, law, medicine, and other sciences.
黑 死 病
黑死病是一场大流行的鼠疫，从1347年到1351年，它摧毁了整个欧洲以及亚洲和中东的部分地区，仅欧洲就有近三分之二的人口死亡。鼠疫是由中亚老鼠携带特有的细菌引起的，据认为它是通过连接欧洲和亚洲市场的丝绸之路贸易，通过西西里岛传播到欧洲的。北欧人特别容易受到黑死病的影响，因为欧洲大陆在1315年至1322年间曾受到大饥荒的严重打击，大饥荒使人口严重营养不良，伤寒和炭疽流行病也使佛兰德斯和英格兰的牛羊种群遭到破坏。
The Black Death was a pandemic of bubonic plague that devastated the whole of Europe and parts of Asia and the Middle East from 1347 to 1351, killing nearly two-thirds of the population of Europe alone. Caused by a bacterium endemic to rats in Central Asia, the plague is thought to have spread to Europe via Sicily from the Silk Road trade linking European and Asian markets. Northern Europeans were particularly vulnerable to the Black Death because the Continent had been hard hit by the Great Famine between 1315 and 1322, which left the population severely malnourished, and by typhoid and anthrax epidemics that devastated the sheep and cattle populations of Flanders and England.
由于黑死病、饥荒和其他流行病，不仅有数百万人丧生；整个经济也被毁了。欧洲繁荣的城镇遭到了破坏，因为密切的生活条件使城市瘟疫比农村地区传播得更快。由于当时的人们不确定鼠疫的传播方式，欧洲君主的反应是禁止食品出口，将货物和商人置于检疫之下。这些措施以及众多商人和农民的死亡造成了严重的经济衰退。具有讽刺意味的是，农民的减少对他们自己有利，地主们不得不竞争他们的劳动力，提供更高的工资和其他自由。在法国、英国和意大利，当统治者试图征收更高的税收和固定农民工资时，农民起义爆发了。
Not only were millions of lives lost because of the Black Death, famine, and the other epidemics; whole economies were ruined as well. Europe’s booming towns and cities were ravaged because the close living conditions spread the plague much more rapidly than in rural areas. Uncertain how the plague was spread, European monarchs reacted by prohibiting exports of foodstuffs and placing goods and merchants under quarantine. Such measures and the death of so many merchants and farmers caused a severe economic recession. Ironically, the decline in the peasantry worked to their advantage: Landlords now had to compete for their labor, offering higher wages and other liberties. Peasant uprisings broke out in France, England, and Italy when rulers tried to impose higher taxes and fix peasant wages.
欧洲惊恐的民众将其恐惧转化为对麻风病人和犹太人的迫害。到14世纪末，麻风病人在欧洲几乎被消灭。犹太人也受到怀疑，因为他们对仪式清洁的要求使他们无法使用公共水井，他们还住在与基督徒隔离的贫民区。因此，较少的犹太人感染了瘟疫。对犹太人在公共水井中投毒的指控导致了整个德国以及法国和西班牙北部对犹太人的迫害。
Europe’s terrified populace channeled its fears into the persecution of lepers and Jews. Lepers were virtually exterminated in Europe by the end of the 14th century. Jews were also suspect because their requirements for ritual cleanliness prevented them from using public wells. They also lived in ghettos segregated from Christians. Consequently, fewer Jews contracted the plague. Accusations of Jews’ poisoning public wells led to pogroms and massacres throughout Germany as well as in France and northern Spain.
黑死病也影响了欧洲的宗教文化，催生了激进的忏悔者鞭笞运动，他们在意大利、德国和低地国家的城市中游荡，公开进行极端的自我折磨行为以赎罪。病态的礼仪赞美诗，如《愤怒的日子》（Dies irae），寓言诗，如《疯狂之舞》，以及指导手册，如《死亡的艺术》（Ars moriendi），说明了人们对死亡的痴迷和迷恋。
The Black Death also affected European religious culture, giving rise to the flagellant movement of radical penitents who roamed the cities of Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries publicly performing extreme acts of self-mortification to expiate sin. Morbid liturgical hymns, such as the Dies irae (The Days of Wrath), allegorical poems such as the “Danse Macabre,” and instruction manuals such as the Art of Dying (Ars moriendi) illustrate the popular obsession and fascination with death.
《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）
By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones
上一册
未完待续！
