英专学硕-外语语言学-考研笔记-1-1-3
Chapter ONE——Language and Linguistics
目录
1-1——「语言与语言学」之Language
1-1-1术语背诵on language
1-1-2 The Definition of Language-广度
1-1-3 The Design Feature of Language-广度
1-1-4论述题on language-规范
…
我们今天继续，继续拓展，1-1-3，
「Design Features」——Arbitrariness、Duality、Creativity[胡]、Productivity[戴]、Displacement、Cultural transmission、Interchangeability(互换性)
著名哲学家Bertrand Russel曾说过，“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.”，不论一只狗叫得多么卖力，它都表达不了它父母贫穷但诚实。
以及，In order to mate, propagate and cooperate in their colonies(为了在种群中繁衍、合作), species like birds and bees also communicate by singing or dancing, following a very elaborate routine too(遵循复杂的惯例).
但，统统不是Language！！！
So, what makes human language so sophisticated? and distinctive from languages used by other species? The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATURES.[胡]
Design Features——
a). DESIGN FEATURES refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.[星火]
b). The features that define our human languages as distinctive from languages used by other species can be called DESIGN FEATURES.[胡]
c). DESIGN FEATURES refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.[戴]
Arbitrariness，S哥提出来的，对，是区别langue与parole的Saussure。
[戴]就词汇方面来说，词汇都有任意性，只是有或多或少的任意性。
Onomatopoeic words(拟声词), such as rumble(隆隆声), crash(碰撞声), cackle(咯咯嘎嘎笑声), bang(爆炸声) in English, and compound words, such are photocopy(photo+copy), they are not entirely arbitrary.
易错——The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimitid source of expressions.[戴]
[胡]At the Syntactic Level(句法层面), language is not arbitrary. But, in other words, syntax(句法) is less arbitrary than words.
语言学胡大师，说话很有艺术，可以说语言不是任意的，也可以说任意性小。
Arbitrariness的对立面是conventionality, 约定性 means it is conventional to say things and you cannot change the expression any other way even if you think it does not look or sound logical.[胡]
易错——Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.[胡]
对于外语学习者来说，语言的约定性比任意性更值得关注[胡]。
Duality——It refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.[胡]
[易错点]Roughly speaking, the elements of the spoken language are sounds which do not convey meaning in themselves. The only function of sounds is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning, such as words.[胡]话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位。
[易错点]我们听一门不懂的外语时，流利的说话者像是在用连续的语流说话。However no language is truly continuous.
To convey discrete meanings(离散的意义), there have to be discrete units(离散的单位), and the first task in decoding(解码) a new language is finding out these discrete units.
最底层的单位是由bets of meaningless sounds which occur in chumps(抱团出现) that we call syllables(音节). Scores of syllables become the carries of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes(音素).
[易错点]Stratification(分层) of Duality——this organization of levels on levels——is the physical manifestation(具体体现) of the“infinite use of finite means，”the trait(特性) that most distinguishes human communication and that provides itself tremendous resourceful.[胡]
[易错点]We can perceive the advantage of DUALITY, which lies in the great productive power our language is endowed with(被赋予的). A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements(大量的单位由很少数量的成分构成)——for instance, a considerable number of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48(48个音素) in the case of(就…而言) the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be endless number of sentences, which in turn can form unlimited number of texts.[胡]
This duality of structure or double articulation(结构二重性) of language enable its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.[戴]
Creativity[胡]——By Creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of itself duality and itself recursiveness.
The creativity of language partly originates from its duality, because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.
In another sense, language is creative, that is, itself potential to create endless sentences. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for possibility.
For instance, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduated who…
语言是缓慢变化的，and we can use Creativity to create new meaning.
语言比信号灯复杂得多，信号灯的信号就没有创造性，信号灯所表达的意思不能被赋予新的含义。
创造性这种能力使人类语言区别于其他生物，for example, birds can only convey a limited range of messages.
Productivity[戴]——Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by itself users.
This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
然后，动物的交流没有能产性。
Displacement, means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present(in time and space) at moment of communication. 因此我们可以提到孔子或北极，虽说前者已故两千多年而后者距离我们非常远。
动物交流没有位移性，比如，a dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in few days.
Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest.(发生关乎共同利害的事情，大多数动物才会被激发出特定的反应)[胡]
换句话说，such animals are under “immediate stimulus control(直接刺激控制)”.
与此同时，Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus-free(不受刺激控制), and what we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.(无论我们讲什么无须由外界或内部的刺激引发).[胡]
当然，语言学大师，大师说话不能说那么死板，有特殊情况，比如蜜蜂的舞蹈能指示食物源，食物源在时间和空间上是过去的和遥远的。我们称the honeybee’ dance exhibits displacement a little bit(展示了少许的位移性).
Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.
Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.
Cultural transmission[戴]——we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.
An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible.
A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese.
It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
与此同时，animal call system are genetically transmitted, i.e, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar(特有的) to their species.
Interchangeability[原处不详]——指的是任何人即是信息的发出者，又可以是信息的接收者，即any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of message, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.
但这个应该可能不是人类特有的，也不是考试重点，仅作选择判断题。
