中世纪世界生活手册（九）
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伊斯兰帝国
610年，一位40岁的阿拉伯商人在经历了长期禁食和精神戒断后，收到了来自天使长加百列 (Gabriel)的神谕。天使告诉他：“诵读吧。‘以创造之主的名义，他用一团血块创造了人。诵读吧。’你的主是最富饶的，他用笔教导，授予人们所不知道的知识。不，的确，人因自以为是而变得傲慢无礼，因为他们认为自己已经自给自足。但这些都是主的功劳。” (Q:96: 1-5）在接下来的22年里，先知穆罕默德不断收到神圣的启示，直到632年去世；启示命令他信奉和服从唯一的真神，以及关于世界末日、最后的审判、真主的无限怜悯，等待那些遵循道路和服从意愿的人享受天堂的乐趣。等待不悔改的罪人遭受地狱之火的折磨；一切社会、宗教、法律和道德规范；以及道德禁令，即凡是真主规定的都要遵守，凡是真主禁止的都要禁止。
In the year 610 a 40-year-old Arabian merchant given to lengthy periods of fasting and spiritual withdrawal received a divine message from the archangel Gabriel. The angel told him, “Recite: ‘In the name of thy Lord who created, created man of a blood-clot.’ Recite: ‘and thy Lord is the most bountiful, who taught by the pen, taught man what he knew not. No, indeed: surely man waxes insolent for he thinks himself self-sufficient. Surely unto thy Lord is the returning.’ ” (Q:96: 1–5) Over the course of the next 22 years until his death in 632, the prophet Muhammad continued to receive divine revelations commanding him to profess and obey the one true God and concerning the end of the world, the last judgment, the infinite mercy of God, and the delights of heaven awaiting those who followed his path and submitted to his will; the torments of the hellfire awaiting unrepentant sinners; social, religious, legal, and ethical norms; and the moral injunction to enjoin whatever God prescribed and forbid whatever he prohibited.
穆罕默德出生在麦加的古莱什部落的一个家庭里，麦加是现在沙特阿拉伯的一个城镇。古莱什人是多神教徒，阿拉伯半岛的许多居民也是如此。但半岛上也居住着犹太人部落以及基督一性论信仰者和景教（又称虔贞教，聂斯脱里主义）教徒，穆罕默德与这些人和其（这些人传颂的）圣典的接触可能刺激了他心里的愿望，即恢复原本纯洁无暇的一神教。
Muhammad was born into a family of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca, a town now in Saudi Arabia. The Quraysh were polytheists, as were many of the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula. But the peninsula was also inhabited by tribes of Jews and by Monophysite and Nestorian Christians, and Muhammad’s contacts with these people and their sacred texts probably spurred his desire to restore the pure unadulterated monotheism that the patriarch
对穆斯林而言，亚伯拉罕是伊斯兰的先知，且是穆罕默德的先祖（从亚伯拉罕之子以实玛利追溯）。在穆罕默德宣扬神圣启示中所揭示的对真主服从（伊斯兰教，“submission”）的信息的二十年中，穆罕默德创造了第三个一神教，结合了犹太教和基督教的许多经典教义。穆罕默德死后，他的弟子将所有启示收集在一起，编入《古兰经》。穆斯林认为，《古兰经》不是人类创造的；它完全是真主口述给穆罕默德的启示，真主称穆罕默德为“真主的使者”（rusul Allah）和 “先知之印”（khatm alanbiya）（Q 33:40），在他之后再无先知。
Abraham practiced. In the two decades that Muhammad preached the message of submission (Islam, “submission”) to God revealed to him in the divine revelations, Muhammad created the third monotheistic religion as a culmination and perfection of Judaism and Christianity. After his death his disciples gathered together all the revelations and arranged them into the Quran. Muslims believe that the Quran is not a human creation; it is entirely the literal word of God dictated to Muhammad, whom God calls the messenger of God (rusul Allah) and the “seal of the prophets (khatm alanbiya) (Q 33:40), after whom there shall be no further prophets.
穆罕默德传教的影响造成了一场社会革命，其规模可与拿撒勒的耶稣传教所引发的革命相媲美。越来越多的部落被优美的古兰经诵读和穆罕默德富有魅力的说教所吸引，皈依了伊斯兰教，并与穆罕默德签订了正式协议，承诺为他和他的追随者提供政治支持和保护。但他自己的部落古莱什，却反对他。作为麦加异教神殿的守护人，他们在保护多神教和部落习俗方面有既得利益，而新宗教明确谴责了这些习俗。起初，古莱什部落占据了极大优势。622年，他们迫使穆罕默德和其追随者移居麦地那。
The impact of Muhammad’s preaching created a social revolution comparable to that sparked by the preachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Attracted by the beauty of the quranic recitations and Muhammad’s charismatic preaching, more and more tribes converted to Islam and entered into formal agreements with Muhammad, promising him and his followers political support and protection. But his own tribe, the Quraysh, opposed him: As custodians of the shrine of the pagan gods at Mecca, they had a vested interest in preserving polytheism and tribal customs that the new religion explicitly condemned. At first it appeared that the Quraysh would prevail: In the year 622 they forced Muhammad and his followers to emigrate to Medina.
然而，穆斯林很看重622这一年，认为它是伊斯兰时代的开始。从麦加城迁徙（或hejira）到叶斯里布（伊斯兰教出现之前，麦地那的原名是Yathrib）绿洲，后来被称为Medinat alNabi，即“先知之城”，标志着伊斯兰社区——乌玛（阿拉伯语中“民族”的意思。在提到伊斯兰教时，ummah指的是整个穆斯林世界，或信徒社区。作为一个神学概念，乌玛旨在超越民族、种族和阶级的划分，团结所有穆斯林）的诞生。乌玛是一个革命性的概念，它的个人和部落成员不是通过血缘和部落关系联系在一起，而是通过遵守新的宗教、政治和社会秩序，其基础是《古兰经》的戒律和赋予穆罕默德作为真主选定的使者的神圣权力。事实上，穆罕默德在麦地那时期收到的启示绝大部分是社会、伦理和法律方面的，他为组织和巩固麦地那社区所做的决定将为伊斯兰国家（哈里发）和伊斯兰法律（伊斯兰教法）的形成奠定基础。
Yet Muslims cherish the year 622 and consider it the beginning of the Islamic era. The migration (or hejira) from the city of Mecca to the oasis of Yathrib, later called Medinat alNabi, city of the Prophet, marks the birth of the Islamic community, the umma. The umma was a revolutionary concept. Its individual and tribal members were bound together not by bloodline and tribal affiliation but by adherence to a new religious, political, and social order based upon the precepts of the Quran and the divine authority invested in Muhammad as God’s chosen messenger. Indeed, the revelations that Muhammad received during the Medinan period were overwhelmingly social, ethical, and legal, and the decisions he took to structure and consolidate the Medinan community would lay the foundations for the formation of the Islamic state (caliphate) and Islamic law (sharia).
麦地那的人们欢迎穆罕默德的到来，听从他对真主真理的启示，麦地那的当地居民被称为安萨尔，字面意思是“帮助者”或“带来胜利的人”。古莱什人控制着进出麦加有利可图的贸易路线。由于不能像商人或游牧民族那样自由活动，穆罕默德和他来自麦加的跟随者（传统上被称为他的同伴）最初通过对这些商队进行袭击（ghazu）来养活自己。他们的袭击获得了宝贵的战利品和牲畜。穆罕默德的支持者和古莱什人及其盟友之间爆发了激烈的战斗。虽然对手人数众多，但穆罕默德在624年的巴德尔战役获得了决定性的胜利，在625年的武侯德战役失败后，又在627年的堑壕之战中取得了惊人的胜利。这次胜利鼓励了更多的部落加入麦地那的乌玛社区。
The people of Medina who had welcomed Muhammad to the oasis and heeded his revelations of Allah’s truths were called ansar, “the helpers.” The Quryash enemies controlled the lucrative trade routes into and out of Mecca. Unable to operate freely as merchants or nomads, Muhammad and his fellow migrants from Mecca, traditionally known as his companions, initially supported themselves by staging raids (ghazu) upon these caravans. Their raiding yielded valuable booty and livestock. Pitched battles broke out between Muhammad’s supporters and the Quraysh and their allies. Though outnumbered, Muhammad won decisive battles at the Well of Badr in 624 and after a defeat at the Battle of Uhud in 625 a stunning victory at the Battle of the Trench in 627. This win encouraged many more tribes to join the umma in Medina.
这些战斗也对穆罕默德与麦地那犹太部落的关系产生了重要影响。622年，麦加的穆斯林、犹太人和麦地那的阿拉伯人签署了《麦地那宪法》，这是一份相互合作的协议，除其他事项外，承诺积极协助对方保卫麦地那免受外来攻击，并且不与外部敌人相勾结。据称，犹太部落Banu Nadir 背弃了这一协议，并被指控密谋刺杀穆罕默德，他们被从麦地那驱逐到海巴尔镇。在那里，他们与另一个犹太部落Banu Qaynuqa联合起来反对穆罕默德。他们是勇敢的战士，但缺乏战略技巧和组织。Banu Qaynuqa的犹太人在经历了“像狮子一样战斗”之后，放下了骄傲的哈斯蒙尼之剑并投降了。数以百计的犹太海巴尔战士被杀，他们的妻子和孩子沦为奴隶。第三个犹太部落叫Banu Qurayza，也居住在麦地那的绿洲。起初，他们在堑壕之战中与穆斯林并肩作战。然而，他们后来在被流放的Banu Nadir的劝说下，改变了效忠对象，支持敌对的麦加人。在麦加军队被打败并撤出麦地那之后，穆罕默德率领他的军队来到Banu Qurayza部落的附近，经过大约25天的战斗，Qurayza的犹太人终于无条件投降了。尽管他们无条件投降，但在随后的谈判中，仲裁者说服穆罕默德屠杀叛军，并将他们的妇女和儿童卖为奴隶。
These battles also had important repercussions for Muhammad’s relations with the Jewish tribes of Medina. In 622 the Meccan Muslims, Jews, and Medinan Arabs signed the Constitution of Medina, an agreement of mutual cooperation pledging, among other things, to assist one another actively in defending Medina from outside attacks and not to side with an external enemy. The Jewish Banu Nadhir tribe, who allegedly reneged on this agreement and plotted to kill Muhammad, were expelled from Yathrib to the town of Khaybar. There they joined forces with another Jewish tribe, the Banu Qaynuqa, against Muhammad. They were brave fighters but lacked strategic skill and organization. The Jews of Khaybar, after having “fought like lions,” let go of the proud Hasmonean sword and surrendered. Hundreds of Jewish Khaybar warriors were killed, and their wives and children were sold into slavery. A third Jewish tribe called the Banu Qurayza also resided at the oasis of Medina. Initially they fought alongside the Muslims in the Battle of the Trench. Yet they later were persuaded by the exiled Banu Nadhir to change allegiances and support the rival Meccans. After the defeat and withdrawal of the Meccan forces from Medina, Muhammad led his troops into the neighborhood of the Banu Qurayza, who finally surrendered unconditionally after some 25 days of fighting. Despite their unconditional surrender, however, in the ensuing negotiations the arbitrator of the conflict convinced Muhammad to massacre the rebels and sell their women and children into slavery.
（部分原因是）为了应对与犹太部落的政治冲突，在他从麦加到麦地那的第二年，穆罕默德下令，朝拜的方向，即所谓的“基卜拉”，不再是朝向耶路撒冷，而是朝向以前阿拉伯部落的长方体神殿，即麦加城中被称为“克尔白(Kaaba)”的神殿或石屋的方向。克尔白(Kaaba)处于被流放的族长亚伯拉罕和他的儿子建造圣屋的同一地点上。630年，当穆罕默德凯旋回到麦加时，他利用旧宗教的习惯、象征和风俗来振兴新宗教，将卡巴重新献给真主（上帝）。
Partly as a response to the political conflict with the Jewish tribes, in the second year of his Hijra from Mecca to Medina, Muhammad decreed that the direction of prayer, called the qibla, was no longer to be toward Jerusalem but rather in the direction of the cubelike shrine that had been a center of worship for previous Arab tribes, the shrine or stone house called the Kaaba in the city of Mecca. The Kaaba stood on the same site on which the exiled patriarch Abraham and his son Ishmael had built the sacred house. When Muhammad returned in triumph to Mecca in 630, he reconsecrated the Kaaba to Allah (God) utilizing the habits, symbols, and customs of the old religions to invigorate his new religion.
阿拉伯先民的圣地以及到麦加朝圣的仪式，在之前的宗教中都很重要，现在都被献给了伊斯兰教。因此，人们欢迎穆罕默德，认为他与其说是一个危险的革命者，不如说是一个必要的恢复者，让过去的辉煌在伊斯兰教中达到顶点。
The sanctuary of the Arab forefathers as well as the ritual pilgrimage to Mecca, both of which were important in pre-Islamic religions, now were consecrated to Islam. Muhammad therefore was welcomed as less of a dangerous revolutionary than a necessary restorer of the best of the past, to reach its culmination in Islam.
先知穆罕默德成功地做了在他之前没有其他阿拉伯统治者做过的事情：将分散的和分裂的部落统一在一个统治者和单一的一神教信仰之下。穆罕默德的新神权国家统一了麦加、麦地那和许多邻近的贝都因部落。当穆罕默德在632年去世时，该地区面临着政治“火山爆发”的威胁。各个部落的领导人制造了著名的分离事件，在阿拉伯语中被称为 "ridda"。穆罕默德没有指定继承人，也没有留下如何选择继承人的明确准则，只是表示希望继承人是古莱什家族的一员。穆斯林社区选举了一位先知的副手，作为法律的监护人和执行者，并作为社区的临时负责人，称为哈里发。穆罕默德的岳父阿布·巴克尔是第一位哈里发，从632年到634年作为实际统治者。
The prophet Muhammad succeeded in doing what no other Arab ruler had done before him: unite the disparate and fractious tribes under a single ruler and a single monotheistic faith. Muhammad’s new theocratic state had united Mecca, Medina, and many of the neighboring Bedouin tribes. When the Prophet died in 632, the area threatened a political volcanic explosion. Various tribal leaders created the famous secession, known in Arabic as the ridda. Muhammad had named no successor and left no clear guidelines of how a successor should be chosen, other than expressing a desire that he should be a member of the Quraysh. His Muslim community elected a vicar, or deputy, of the Prophet as guardian and executor of the law and as the temporal head of the community, called a caliph. Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, was the first caliph, ruling from 632 to 634.
穆罕默德感到自己肩负着神圣的使命，要带领所有的人，而不仅仅是阿拉伯人，向真主的意志服从，这促使穆罕默德向拜占庭派遣远征军，敦促拜占庭和其他国家的人服从伊斯兰教的统治。在先知去世后的80年内，穆斯林建立了一个庞大的帝国，东起信德（印度），西至伊比利亚半岛，统治的地区包括了旧罗马帝国的大部分区域。
Muhammad’s sense of divine mission to lead all people, not just the Arabs, to surrender to the will of God prompted Muhammad to send expeditions to Byzantium to urge the Byzantines and others to submit to Islamic rule. Within 80 years after the Prophet’s death, the Muslims created a vast empire that extended from Sind (India) in the east to the Iberian Peninsula in the west, ruling over an area encompassing much of the old Roman Empire.
伊斯兰帝国不仅在地理上而且在文化上都是罗马帝国的继承者，因为它也创造了一种新文明。正如之前的罗马人一样，穆斯林成功地将由不同种族和宗教的人组成的巨大领土统一起来，形成一个独特的文明，为那些接受伊斯兰教的人提供宗教、语言（阿拉伯语）、文化和伊斯兰法律的统治。
The Islamic empire was an heir of the Roman Empire not only geographically but also culturally, for it, too, created a new civilization. As the Romans had before them, the Muslims succeeded in uniting an immense territory of ethnically and religiously diverse peoples into a distinct civilization conjoined by religion for those who embraced Islam, language (Arabic), culture, and the rule of Islamic law.
伊斯兰社会和文化的统一特征
穆罕默德创建了确定伊斯兰社会和文化轮廓的机构。伊斯兰教作为一种宗教建立在五大支柱之上：对唯一真神的信仰、每天五次的仪式性祈祷、斋月期间的禁食、缴纳施舍税以及到麦加朝圣。他还制定了发动正义或“神圣”战争（圣战）的具体规则。在麦地那，穆罕默德在他家附近建造了一座清真寺，它不仅是宗教礼拜的场所，而且是社区的政治和行政中心。在清真寺的讲坛上，穆罕默德宣讲和颁布政策，宣布战争或和平，并对社区成员之间的争端进行仲裁。穆罕默德去世后，清真寺继续成为穆斯林宗教、文化、社会和政治生活的焦点。
Muhammad created the institutions that defined the contours of Islamic society and culture. Islam as a religion was based upon five pillars: the profession of the one true God, ritual prayer five times a day, fasting during the month of Ramadan, payment of the alms tax, and pilgrimage to Mecca. Specific rules for waging the just or “holy” war (jihad) were also instituted. At Medina Muhammad built a mosque adjacent to his house that became not only the place of religious worship but the political and administrative center of the community. From the mosque pulpit Muhammad preached and announced policies, declared war or peace, and arbitrated disputes between members of the community. After Muhammad’s death the mosque continued to be the focus of Muslim religious, cultural, social, and political life.
古兰经的启示和穆罕默德的个人经历所揭示的社区生活原则围绕着三个基本概念：（1）所有穆斯林之间的精神博爱；（2）穆斯林和那些与穆罕默德建立政治联盟的非穆斯林部落之间的相互尊重、忠诚和合作；（3）对乌玛的敌人进行战争。在麦地那制定的关于征收公共施舍税（天课：属于伊斯兰教的宗教术语，含有「洁净」、「纯净」之意，也就是说通过交付「天课」使自己的财产更加洁净，是念、拜、斋、课、朝五功的第四功）、穆斯林与非穆斯林之间的关系、战利品的公正分配以及发动圣战的适当规范的法律，对于巩固伊斯兰社会在阿拉伯边界之外的传播至关重要。
The principles of communal life as revealed in the Quranic revelations and the personal experiences of Muhammad revolved around three basic notions: (1) spiritual fraternity and love among all Muslims; (2) mutual respect, loyalty, and collaboration between the Muslims and those non-Muslim tribes with whom Muhammad established political alliances; and (3) warfare against the enemies of the umma. The laws regarding the collection of communal alms tax (zakat), the relations between Muslims and non-Muslims, the just distribution of war booty, and the proper norms of waging jihad instituted at Medina were fundamental in the consolidation of Islamic society as it spread beyond the borders of Arabia.
《麦地那宪法》
《麦地那宪法》是穆罕默德在622年与麦地那绿洲的犹太和阿拉伯部落签订的条约。穆斯林和犹太人各自信奉并严格遵守各自的宗教。每个社区在经济上都是自治的，但必须参加社区委员会，以确保政治团结。在发生外部威胁时，宪法的所有签署者应联合起来保卫社区，保护其不可侵犯性，并为战争筹资作出贡献。如前所述，犹太部落和穆斯林之间的条约破裂了，导致许多犹太人被驱逐和清除。然而，《麦地那宪法》确实为国家与宗教少数群体之间关系的系统化奠定了蓝图。与犹太人、基督徒和琐罗亚斯德教徒有可能做出这样的安排，《古兰经》认定他们是“有经之人”，他们的启示被认为是神圣且有效的。
The Constitution of Medina was a treaty that Muhammad entered into with the Jewish and Arab tribes of the oasis of Medina in 622. Muslims and Jews were each to profess and strictly follow their respective religions. Each community was to be economically autonomous, but the obligatory attendance at communal councils would ensure political solidarity. In the event of an external threat, all the signatories of the constitution should band together to defend the community, protect its inviolability, and contribute to financing the war effort. As described previously, the treaty between the Jewish tribes and the Muslims fell apart, resulting in the expulsion and murder of many Jews. The Constitution of Medina did, however, lay the blueprint of the systematization of relations between the state and its religious minorities. Such an arrangement was possible with Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians, whom the Quran identified as the “People of the Book,” whose revelations were recognized as divine and valid.
《古兰经》禁止强行皈依，但它确实强调应胁迫“有经之人”服从穆斯林的统治，在这种统治下，他们被允许信奉自己的宗教并管理自己的内部事务，以换取治理和支付称为吉兹雅（一种曾经在伊斯兰国家向非穆斯林人民（齐米）实施的人头税，征税对象，通常是有体力当兵及有财力缴税的成年男子，不包括奴隶）的人头税。另一方面，他们免于支付伊斯兰宗教税（天课）或从中受益。
The Quran forbade forcible conversion, but it did stress that the People of the Book should be coerced into submitting to Muslim rule, under which they were allowed to practice their religions and manage their internal affairs in exchange for governance and payment of a poll tax called jizya. On the other hand, they were exempt from paying or benefiting from the Islamic religious tax (zakat).
竞争的力量：拜占庭人和萨珊人
穆罕默德的新宗教与两个大国竞争，即拜占庭和萨珊王朝（Sassanid）。拜占庭基督徒的首都在拜占庭，即君士坦丁堡。拜占庭皇帝通过讲希腊语的公务员来统治地中海东部的大城市，如安提阿、叙利亚和埃及的亚历山大。安纳托利亚的亚美尼亚人、叙利亚的叙利亚人和埃及的科普特基督徒都信奉基督教，但在教义上有地方差异。
Muhammad’s new religion competed with two major powers, the Byzantine and the Sassanian (Sassanid). The Byzantine Christians had their capital at Byzantium, formerly the city of Constantinople. The Byzantine emperor ruled through Greek-speaking civil servants the great cities of the eastern Mediterranean, Antioch, Syria, and Alexandria in Egypt. Christianity with local doctrinal variations was practiced by Armenians in Anatolia, Syriacs in Syria, and Coptic Christians in Egypt.
另一个大帝国是萨珊王朝。他们的统治拱卫着伊朗和伊拉克，外人难以进入中亚地区。最初的萨珊家族国家是伊朗南部的一个讲波斯语的民族，他们信奉拜火教。这种宗教与哲学家琐罗亚斯德（约公元前1200年）有关，他认为至高无上的神之下的宇宙是一个战场，善与恶的精神在上面争夺控制权。虽然正义对邪恶的胜利是肯定的，但具有美德和仪式纯洁性的男人和女人可以加速结果的到来。信仰琐罗亚斯德教或祆教的萨珊人将其首都设在底格里斯河和幼发拉底河之间的泰西封(Ctesiphon)。
The second great empire was the Sassanian. Their rule arched over Iran and Iraq into Central Asia. The original Sassanian family state was a Persian-speaking people of southern Iran who practiced Zoroastrianism. This religion was associated with the philosopher Zoroaster (d. c. 1200 B.C.E.), who believed the universe beneath the supreme God was a battleground upon which good and evil spirits contended for control. Though the victory of good over evil was assured, men and women of virtue and ritual purity could hasten the outcome. The Sassanian followers of Zoroastrianism or Mazdaism had their capital at Ctesiphon, located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.
长期以来，拜占庭人和萨珊人一直是激烈的对手，在入侵、战争和休战之间进行着似乎无止境的循环，最后又被进一步爆发的战争所结束。通常情况下，休战的出现是因为双方同时受到野蛮人入侵的威胁。旷日持久的战争，瘟疫的流行，以及由于农业生产和贸易的中断而导致的经济衰退，使得两个帝国都被削弱了，成为伊斯兰教强大而积极的军队的猎物。促使伊斯兰教迅速征服的一个重要因素是每个国家的少数民族人口所遭受的宗教迫害。犹太人在拜占庭皇帝希拉克略和波斯国王霍斯劳二世的统治下都遭受了迫害。伽珊尼德部落的一性论者从希拉克略的军队中叛逃，导致了伊斯兰势力对叙利亚和巴勒斯坦的征服。
The Byzantines and Sassanians had long been bitter rivals engaging in a seemingly endless cycle of invasions, wars, and truces, only to be ended by further outbursts of warfare. Often a truce might come about because each side was also simultaneously under the threat of the barbarian invasions. Protracted wars, epidemics of plague, and the economic decline due to the disruptions in agricultural production and trade that these engendered left both empires weakened and ripe pickings for the strong and motivated armies of Islam. An important factor contributing to the swiftness of the Islamic conquests was the religious persecution that minority populations within each realm had suffered. Jews suffered under both the Byzantine emperor Heraclius and the Persian shah Khosrau II. The defection of the Ghassanid Monophysites from Heraclius’s army resulted in the Islamic conquests of Syria and Palestine.
下一个即将被伊斯兰教统治的地区是一个由语言、文化和宗教组成的华丽织锦。在泰西封，摩尼教、琐罗亚斯德教、基督教聂斯脱里主义和犹太教都很繁荣。波斯语方言，特别是巴列维语，以及与希伯来语和阿拉伯语相关的闪族语言阿拉米语和叙利亚语也很盛行。红海对岸的埃塞俄比亚古王国将科普特基督教作为其官方宗教。位于阿拉伯西南部的也门有自己的语言，与阿拉伯其他地方的阿拉伯语不同，还有自己的多神教。阿拉伯半岛的大部分地区是开阔的沙漠或大草原，有孤立的绿洲。贝都因阿拉伯人是游牧民族，他们牧养骆驼、绵羊和山羊。其他人在绿洲上种植谷物和棕榈树。还有一些人是小集镇上的商人和工匠。
The area that was to come under Islamic rule was a rich tapestry of languages, cultures, and religions. In Ctesiphon Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Christian Nestorianism, and Judaism flourished. Persian language dialects, particularly Pahlavi, were spoken, as were Aramaic, a Semitic language related to Hebrew and Arabic, and Syriac. Across the Red Sea the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia celebrated Coptic Christianity as its official religion. Yemen, in southwest Arabia, had its own language, which differed from Arabic spoken elsewhere in Arabia, and its own polytheistic religion. Much of the Arabian Peninsula was open desert or steppeland with isolated oases. Bedouin Arabs were nomads who pastured camels, sheeps, and goats. Other people cultivated grain and palm trees in the oases. Still others were traders and craftsmen in small market towns.
骑骆驼的游牧民族在数量上是少数，但却是一个流动的、武装的、强大的群体，他们与城镇的商人一起支配着农民和手工业者。游牧群体具有强烈的勇气、好客、对家庭的忠诚和对祖先的骄傲等精神。著名的部落成员领导他们。他们崇拜的神灵被认为是居住在一个神圣的地方或城镇，不受部落冲突的影响，称为“哈拉姆”。哈拉姆是一个朝圣、祭祀、集会和仲裁的中心。一个家庭负责保护“哈拉姆”不受邻近部落的侵扰和亵渎。在绿洲城市中，尽管有一种特定的信仰占主导地位，但各种宗教还是共存的。希拉是一个由拉赫姆人控制的基督教中心，附近有伽珊尼德人。位于阿拉伯西部的汉志（Hijaz，又称希贾兹）是犹太工匠、商人和农民的家园。
Nomads who rode camels were a numerical minority but were a mobile, armed, powerful group that joined with the town merchants to dominate the farmers and craftsmen. Nomadic groups had a strong ethos of courage, hospitality, loyalty to family, and pride of ancestry. Prominent tribal members led them. They worshipped gods thought to dwell in a sanctuary place or town sacrosanct from tribal conflict called a haram. A haram was a center of pilgrimage, sacrifice, meeting, and arbitration. A family protected the haram from neighboring tribes’ incursions and desecrations. Religions coexisted in the oasis cities even though one particular faith predominated. Hira was a Christian center controlled by the Lakhmids, and nearby were the Ghassanids. Hijaz, in western Arabia, was a home for Jewish craftsmen, merchants, and farmers.
哈里发欧玛尔和伊斯兰教的扩张
634年，欧玛尔·宾·哈塔卜（634-644）被推举为伊斯兰的哈里发，接替阿布·伯克尔（巴克尔）。欧玛尔作为伊斯兰社会的领袖崭露头角，这是一个非凡宗教转换故事的高潮。欧玛尔是古莱什部落的成员，他一直是穆罕默德的死敌，与他作战，甚至计划阴谋杀害他。然而，当他听到妹妹背诵《古兰经》中的一段经文时，据说他被这段优美的背诵所感动，当场皈依伊斯兰教。从此，他成为穆罕默德最亲密、最坚定的盟友之一，并成为伊斯兰教的衷心捍卫者。
In 634 Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644) was elected to succeed Abu Bakr as the caliph of the Islamic umma. Umar’s rise to prominence as the leader of the Islamic community is the culmination of a remarkable tale of religious conversion. Umar, a member of the Quraysh tribe, had been an archenemy of Muhammad, battling against him and going so far as to plot to kill him. Yet upon hearing his sister recite a verse from the Quran, he is said to have been so moved by the beauty of the recitation that he converted on the spot. From then on he became one of Muhammad’s closest and staunchest allies and a zealous defender of Islam.
在欧玛尔的哈里发时期，圣战思想一直很重要。欧玛尔打算从精力充沛的贝都因部落中创建Dar al-Islam（伊斯兰教的居所）。634年，伊斯兰战士征服了拜占庭的博特拉要塞（fortress of Bothra）。第二年，他们征服了大马士革。636年，他们征服了叙利亚。638年，他们冲进耶路撒冷的大门，并于640年进入凯撒利亚。他们还占领了美索不达米亚。636年和637年，波斯在希拉中心附近的卡迪西亚（Qadisiyya）遭遇失败，欧玛尔的军队在那里将萨珊王朝的军队打得落荒而逃。阿拉伯军队冲进了泰西封城。641-642年，波斯帝国在哈马丹附近的纳哈万德战役中惨败。接下来，穆斯林袭击了埃及。入侵者在（现代）开罗附近的福斯塔特建立了一个统治中心。641年，亚历山大城被穆斯林军队攻陷。此后，他们征服了昔兰尼加。伊斯兰先遣部队最远深入到突尼斯。
During Umar’s caliphate the religious ideal of jihad was preeminent. Umar intended to create from the energetic Bedouin tribes the Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam). In 634 Islamic warriors conquered the Byzantine fortress of Bothra. The following year they subjugated Damascus. The next year, 636, they overcame Syria. In 638 they stormed the gates of Jerusalem, invaded the city, and entered Caesarea in 640. They also took Mesopotamia. Persia in 636 and 637 suffered defeat at Qadisiyya, near the center of Hira, where Umar’s men put the Sassanid army to flight. Arab armies rushed into the city of Ctesiphon. In the year 641–642 the Persian Empire succumbed at the Battle of Ninavand, near Hamadan. Next the Muslims attacked Egypt. The invaders established a center at Fustat, near modern Cairo. Alexandria fell to Muslim forces in 641. Thereafter they conquered Cyrenaica. Advance parties penetrated as far as Tunisia.
行政改革、吉兹亚和《欧麦尔条约》
伊斯兰教统治在国外的扩张，需要进行行政和法律改革，以巩固哈里发的地位。当地的政治和财政机构基本上保持不变。欧玛尔建立了一个行政上层建筑来统治新征服的土地，引入了一个公共财政来为帝国的需求提供资金，并组织了王国的人口普查，他还是第一个铸造硬币的穆斯林统治者，并开始了编纂伊斯兰法的过程。
The expansion of Islamic rule abroad necessitated administrative and legal reforms to consolidate the caliphate. Native political and fiscal institutions were largely kept intact. Umar established an administrative superstructure to rule the newly conquered lands, introduced a public treasury to finance the needs of the empire, organized the census of the realm, was the first Muslim ruler to mint coinage, and began the process of codifying Islamic law.
欧玛尔还对宗教少数群体的法律地位的系统化作出了贡献。大多数学者认为，被称为 “欧玛尔条约”的文件是在8世纪和11世纪之间的某个时候由法律专家编辑的，但被归于欧玛尔，以使其具有合法性。它的灵感可能来自于欧玛尔统治时期制定的惯例。《欧玛尔条约》详细列出了犹太教、基督教和拜火教齐米（亦被译作迪米，伊斯兰教称「（被）保护民」的术语，是指在以沙里亚法规为基础的伊斯兰国家中信仰其他一神教的人（有经者）。多神教与无神论者不在被保护的范围内）的个人地位、义务和权利。齐米们承诺在未获得统治者许可的情况下不建造新的寺庙。他们发誓在危险的时候履行对穆斯林的忠诚，不利用他们的礼拜场所来隐藏、帮助或教唆穆斯林的敌人。他们承诺不张扬地信奉自己的宗教，不为他人传教，也不禁止其社区成员皈依伊斯兰教。贱民也有义务对穆斯林表示敬意。
Umar also contributed to the systematization of the legal status of religious minorities. Most scholars believe that the document called the Pact of Umar was redacted by doctors of the law sometime between the eighth and the 11th centuries but was attributed to Umar to lend it legitimacy. It may have been inspired by practices instituted during his rule. The Pact of Umar outlines in detail the personal status, duties, and rights of Jewish, Christian, and Zoroastrian dhimmis. Dhimmis pledged not to build new temples without obtaining permission from the ruler. They vowed to honor their allegiance to the Muslims in times of peril and not to use their places of worship to hide, aid, or abet enemies of the Muslims. They promised not to practice their religion ostentatiously, to proselytize others, or to forbid members of their community to convert to Islam. Dhimmis were also obliged to show deference to Muslims.
《欧玛尔条约》旨在明确界定穆斯林和非穆斯林之间的社会界限，加强前者对后者的优越地位。因此，在衣着、言语或习俗上，如使用尊贵的头衔等方面，齐米不得模仿穆斯林。他们也不能骑马或拥有比穆斯林更高的寺庙或房屋。虽然齐米对穆斯林来说是二等公民，但齐米的制度化与拉丁化西部和拜占庭帝国有关宗教少数群体地位的政策的任意性形成鲜明对比。此外，在穆斯林中世纪的过程中，严格的规定主要是在违反规定的情况下得到尊重。在倭马亚王朝的西班牙、阿拔斯王朝的伊拉克、法蒂玛王朝和后来的马穆鲁克王朝的埃及，穆斯林统治者严重依赖他们的非穆斯林臣民，如犹太人和欧洲基督徒难民，穆斯林统治者花钱雇佣他们为自己工作。基督教对犹太人的迫害以及天主教和拜占庭对彼此的迫害，为穆斯林帝国创造了大量熟练的翻译、外交官、调解员、收税员以及其他行政和法庭官员。
The Pact of Umar aimed to define clearly social boundaries between Muslims and nonMuslims and to reinforce the superior status of the former over the latter. Hence, dhimmis were not to imitate the Muslims in their manner of dress, speech, or customs such as the use of honorific titles. They also could not ride horses or have temples or houses higher than those of the Muslims. While dhimmis were second-class citizens with respect to the Muslims, the institutionalization of dhimmitude contrasts with the arbitrariness of the policies governing the status of religious minorities in the Latin West and the Byzantine Empire. Moreover, the strict provisions were mainly honored in the breach during the course of the Muslim Middle Ages. In the dynasties of Umayyad Spain, Abbasid Iraq, and Fatimid and later Mamluk Egypt, Muslim rulers heavily relied on their non-Muslim subjects such as Jews and refugee European Christians whom they paid to work for them. The Christian persecution of the Jews and the Catholic and Byzantine persecutions of each other created an ample supply of skilled translators, diplomats, mediators, tax collectors, and other administrative and court officers.
穆斯林统治下的人口的伊斯兰化是一个渐进的过程。与流行的神话相反，伊斯兰教不是一个“靠剑传播”的宗教。正如伊斯兰教学者弗雷德·丹尼所指出的，伊斯兰征服的目的主要不是宗教，而是经济和政治（丹尼36）。一些皈依伊斯兰教的人无疑是被作为穆斯林的财政优势的前景所诱惑，因为齐米的人头税高于穆斯林的天课。大地主和城市大商人可能觉得皈依伊斯兰教很方便、很快捷。穆罕默德本人作为一个商人，培养和颂扬了商业阶层。最早的伊斯兰教形式是以城市为中心，对商业宽容。然而，并非所有皈依者都是出于纯粹的经济考虑。许多人，如欧玛尔本人，是被《古兰经》的美丽和它所传达的今世繁荣和他世救赎的简单信息所吸引而加入伊斯兰教的。
The Islamization of the populations under Muslim rule was a gradual process. Contrary to popular myth, Islam was not a religion that “spread by the sword.” As scholar of Islam Fred Denny notes, the aims of the conquests were not primarily religious but economic and political (Denny 36). Some converts to Islam were undoubtedly tempted by the prospect of the fiscal advantages of being a Muslim, since the dhimmi poll tax was higher than the Muslim zakat. Large landowners and major urban merchants may have found conversion to Islam convenient and expedient. Muhammad himself as a merchant cultivated and celebrated the commercial classes. The earliest forms of Islam were urban centered and business tolerant. Not all converts were motivated by purely economic considerations, however. Many, such as Umar himself, had been drawn to Islam by the beauty of the Quran and by the simplicity of its message of this-worldly prosperity and otherworldly salvation.
《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）
By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones
未完待续！
